Fred Korematsu was a Japanese-American civil rights hero who stood up against the U.S. government during World War II. At just 23 years old, he refused to comply with Executive Order 9066, which forced Japanese Americans into concentration camps. His brave resistance led to a Supreme Court case that, while initially ruled against him, eventually became recognized as a pivotal moment in the fight for civil liberties in America.
While most Japanese Americans reluctantly followed evacuation orders, Korematsu chose to stay home in San Leandro, California. He was arrested in 1942 and convicted of violating the federal order. Though his conviction was overturned decades later, the Supreme Court’s original decision upholding the internment policy remained a dark chapter in American judicial history until it was finally repudiated in 2018.
Korematsu’s legacy lives on through the Fred T. Korematsu Institute, which works to advance racial equity and social justice. His story reminds us that protecting civil rights often requires ordinary individuals to take extraordinary stands against injustice. Today, his birthday is officially recognized as Fred Korematsu Day in several states, honoring his contribution to American civil rights history.
Early Life and Background
Fred Korematsu grew up in California during a time when Asian Americans faced many challenges. His early experiences in Oakland and connection to the Japanese American community shaped his life and later activism.
Childhood and Education
Fred Toyosaburo Korematsu was born in Oakland, California on January 30, 1919. He was the third of four sons in his family. His parents, Kakusaburo Korematsu and Kotsui Aoki, were immigrants from Japan who settled in the United States.
The Korematsu family ran a flower nursery business in Oakland. Growing up, Fred attended public schools in Oakland where he received his education alongside American-born children of various backgrounds.
Fred was an American citizen by birth, as were many Japanese American children born in the United States during this time. As a young man, he worked as a shipyard welder in Oakland before World War II began.
Japanese American Community
The Korematsu family was part of a growing Japanese American community in California during the early 20th century. Many Japanese immigrants had come to America seeking economic opportunities and a better life for their families.
Japanese Americans in California established businesses, formed community organizations, and created cultural institutions while adapting to American life. Despite their contributions, they faced significant discrimination and legal restrictions.
California had laws preventing Japanese immigrants from owning land, and federal law prohibited them from becoming naturalized citizens. As a Nisei (second-generation Japanese American), Fred had citizenship rights his parents lacked, yet still faced prejudice.
The community maintained many Japanese cultural traditions while embracing American ways of life. This dual identity would later become complicated by international tensions between the United States and Japan.
World War II and Executive Order 9066
Fred Korematsu’s life was dramatically altered by the events following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor. The US government’s response included unprecedented restrictions on Japanese Americans that would later become a landmark civil rights case.
World War II Impact on Japanese Americans
After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, fear and prejudice against Japanese Americans intensified across the United States. Many Americans viewed anyone of Japanese descent with suspicion, regardless of their citizenship status or loyalty to America.
Fred Korematsu, a California-born US citizen, experienced this discrimination firsthand. Despite his American citizenship, he was turned away when he tried to enlist in both the US National Guard and Coast Guard.
Anti-Japanese sentiment grew rapidly on the West Coast. Businesses displayed “No Japs Allowed” signs, and media outlets published inflammatory articles suggesting Japanese Americans might be spies or saboteurs.
Japanese Americans faced curfews, travel restrictions, and asset freezes. Many lost their jobs and businesses as hostility mounted in early 1942.
Issuance of Executive Order 9066
On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, granting military commanders the power to designate “military areas” and exclude any persons they deemed threats to national security.
Though the order never specifically mentioned Japanese Americans, its implementation primarily targeted them. Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, commander of the Western Defense Command, issued a series of military proclamations affecting Japanese Americans on the West Coast.
These orders required approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans (two-thirds of whom were US citizens) to report to assembly centers. They were allowed to bring only what they could carry, forcing many to sell homes and businesses at significant losses.
The military justified these actions as necessary for national security, though no evidence of espionage by Japanese Americans was ever presented. Many, including Fred Korematsu, would soon face the harsh reality of internment camps.
Korematsu’s Defiance and Legal Battle
Fred Korematsu took a brave stand against the U.S. government’s internment orders during World War II, challenging what he believed was an unconstitutional policy targeting Japanese Americans.
Initiation of Korematsu’s Case
In 1942, Fred Korematsu, a 23-year-old Japanese American, refused to comply with Executive Order 9066, which mandated the removal of all persons of Japanese ancestry from designated areas. Korematsu chose to stay in San Francisco with his Italian-American girlfriend rather than report to an assembly center.
He was arrested on May 30, 1942, and subsequently tried in federal court in San Francisco. The court convicted him of violating military orders issued under the executive order.
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) recognized the potential of Korematsu’s case to challenge the constitutionality of Japanese internment. They provided legal support, helping him appeal his conviction and fight for his constitutional rights.
Supreme Court Involvement
Korematsu’s case reached the Supreme Court in 1944. His legal team argued that the exclusion orders violated his Fifth Amendment rights. On December 18, 1944, in a 6-3 decision, the Supreme Court upheld Korematsu’s conviction.
Justice Hugo Black wrote the majority opinion, stating that the detention was a “military necessity” rather than racism. However, three justices—Owen Roberts, Frank Murphy, and Robert Jackson—wrote powerful dissents. Justice Murphy’s dissent notably called the exclusion order “legalization of racism.”
Despite this defeat, Korematsu’s case became a landmark in civil rights history. Forty years later, in 1983, new evidence of government misconduct emerged. Legal scholars discovered that the government had suppressed FBI and military intelligence reports stating that Japanese Americans posed no security threat.
This discovery led a pro-bono legal team to reopen Korematsu’s case, resulting in his conviction being overturned in 1983.
Legacy of the Korematsu Case
Fred Korematsu’s legal battle against Japanese American internment left a lasting impact on civil liberties and the Japanese American community. His courage to stand against government injustice continues to inform legal discussions about constitutional rights during national emergencies.
Civil Liberties Implications
Korematsu v. United States remains a pivotal case in American civil liberties jurisprudence. Though the Supreme Court upheld Korematsu’s conviction in 1944, the case later became known as a cautionary tale about government overreach during wartime.
The case established dangerous precedent that allowed racial discrimination under the guise of national security. Legal scholars frequently cite Korematsu as an example of how civil liberties can be compromised during times of crisis.
In 1983, Korematsu’s conviction was vacated through a legal petition called a writ of coram nobis. This legal victory helped establish that wartime necessity did not justify racial discrimination.
The Korematsu legacy endures in modern Supreme Court decisions. Justices now regularly reference the case when evaluating government actions that might infringe on constitutional rights during national emergencies.
Japanese American Community Impact
Fred Korematsu became a powerful symbol of resistance for Japanese Americans. His defiance represented the struggle of an entire community against unjust government actions during World War II.
After his coram nobis case, Korematsu dedicated his life to educating others about the internment. He regularly spoke at schools and public events to ensure that future generations would learn from this dark chapter in American history.
The Japanese American community honors Korematsu’s memory through “Fred Korematsu Day,” celebrated in several states. This commemoration helps preserve the collective memory of internment and highlights the ongoing fight against discrimination.
Korematsu’s story has inspired many Japanese Americans to pursue social justice work. His willingness to challenge the nation’s conscience demonstrated that ordinary citizens can stand up against government overreach.
Community organizations dedicated to civil rights continue to invoke Korematsu’s name when advocating for protections against racial profiling and discrimination.
Post-War Life and Activism
After his Supreme Court case, Fred Korematsu lived a quiet life for decades before becoming an outspoken advocate for civil rights. His later years were marked by renewed legal battles and educational efforts to prevent similar injustices.
Continued Advocacy for Civil Rights
Fred Korematsu’s fight for justice didn’t end with his 1944 Supreme Court defeat. For nearly 40 years, he rarely spoke about his case, working as a draftsman and raising his family in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Everything changed in 1983 when legal historian Peter Irons discovered evidence that the government had withheld critical information from the Supreme Court during Korematsu’s original case. This discovery led to the reopening of his case.
On November 10, 1983, Judge Marilyn Hall Patel formally vacated Korematsu’s conviction in a landmark victory. This legal win, known as coram nobis, cleared his name and validated his decades-long stand against injustice.
After this victory, Korematsu became increasingly active in defending civil liberties. Following the September 11 attacks, he spoke out against discrimination targeting Muslim Americans and filed amicus briefs challenging detention policies.
Public Speaking and Education
In his later years, Korematsu transformed from a private citizen into a civil rights leader and pioneer. He traveled across the country speaking at colleges, law schools, and community events about the importance of protecting constitutional rights for all Americans.
He emphasized a powerful message: “Don’t be afraid to speak up when you see something wrong happening.” His story became an educational tool for teaching about the dangers of unchecked government power.
In 1998, President Bill Clinton awarded Korematsu the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor. This recognition highlighted his significant contribution to civil rights in America.
The Korematsu Institute was established to continue his legacy through education. Several states now recognize January 30 as “Fred Korematsu Day” – the first day in U.S. history named after an Asian American.
Until his death in 2005, Fred remained dedicated to ensuring that the injustices faced by Japanese Americans would never be repeated against any group.
Recognition and Honors
Fred Korematsu received several prestigious awards for his civil rights activism and unwavering commitment to justice. His courage in challenging the legality of Japanese American internment during World War II earned him national recognition and a lasting legacy.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
On January 15, 1998, Fred Korematsu was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States. President Bill Clinton presented this distinguished award during an official White House ceremony.
During the ceremony, President Clinton remarked, “In the long history of our country’s constant search for justice, some names of ordinary citizens stand for millions of souls: Plessy, Brown, Parks… to that distinguished list, today we add the name of Fred Korematsu.”
This honor recognized Korematsu’s extraordinary courage in standing up against the forced internment of Japanese Americans and his lifelong dedication to fighting for civil rights and equal justice for all Americans.
Fred Korematsu Day
In 2010, the State of California established Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution, observed annually on January 30, Korematsu’s birthday. This marked the first time an Asian American was honored with a named day in the United States.
Several other states including Hawaii, Virginia, and New York have since recognized Fred Korematsu Day. The day serves as an opportunity to reflect on the importance of protecting civil liberties and constitutional rights for all Americans.
Schools across these states use this day to teach students about Korematsu’s fight against injustice and the importance of standing up for constitutional rights, even in challenging times.
Continued Legal Relevance
Fred Korematsu’s case has profoundly shaped American legal discourse on civil liberties during wartime. His challenge to Executive Order 9066 continues to be cited in constitutional arguments about government powers and individual rights.
Legal Milestones
Fred Korematsu’s conviction was reopened in 1983 by a pro-bono legal team that included the Asian Law Caucus. This legal action occurred nearly 40 years after his original case, based on evidence of government misconduct.
The legal team uncovered that the government had suppressed evidence favorable to Japanese Americans during the original Supreme Court case. This led to Korematsu’s conviction being vacated in what’s known as a “coram nobis” petition.
In 1988, Korematsu’s advocacy helped pass the Civil Liberties Act, which provided reparations to Japanese Americans interned during World War II. This legislation formally acknowledged the injustice of the internment policy.
Constitutional Debates
The Supreme Court’s original 1944 ruling in Korematsu v. United States permitted the detention of Japanese Americans under the justification of national security. This ruling has never been explicitly overturned, though it was strongly repudiated in the 2018 Trump v. Hawaii case.
Legal scholars frequently cite Korematsu when debating the balance between national security and civil liberties. The case raises fundamental questions about due process and equal protection under the Constitution.
Dr. Karen Korematsu continues to speak about her father’s case and its ongoing relevance to constitutional rights. She emphasizes how the lessons from his fight against discrimination apply to contemporary civil rights challenges.
The case remains a powerful cautionary example in legal education about the dangers of curtailing civil liberties during times of crisis or fear.
Impact on Modern Civil Liberties
Fred Korematsu’s fight against Japanese internment continues to shape American civil liberties discussions. His courage established a foundation for challenging government overreach during times of national security concerns.
Influence on Other Civil Rights Movements
Korematsu’s case created a powerful precedent for other civil rights movements. The Korematsu Institute was founded to carry on his legacy, promoting education about his stand against racial discrimination.
Civil rights leaders regularly cite his example when fighting for equality. His story demonstrates how one person’s resistance can highlight systemic injustice and eventually lead to change.
Many modern activists fighting racial profiling draw direct parallels to Korematsu’s experience. His case shows how easily constitutional protections can be suspended during crisis periods.
The formal apology and reparations that Japanese Americans eventually received also established important precedent for other groups seeking redress for historical wrongs.
Contemporary Legal Challenges
Korematsu’s case received renewed attention in modern legal battles over civil liberties. In 2018, the Supreme Court effectively overturned the original Korematsu ruling when addressing travel restrictions.
Modern courts now regularly examine whether national security measures disproportionately target specific ethnic or religious groups. This scrutiny reflects Korematsu’s legacy of balancing liberties and safety.
Legal scholars continue to study how his case demonstrates the dangers of curtailing human rights during crisis periods. His story serves as a cautionary tale about how fear can undermine constitutional protections.
The ongoing debate about security versus liberty directly connects to the principles Korematsu fought to uphold.
Educational Contributions and Outreach
Fred Korematsu’s impact extends far beyond his court case, shaping how Americans learn about civil liberties and rights. His story has become an important educational tool for teaching about justice and constitutional principles.
Korematsu Institute and Curriculum
The Fred T. Korematsu Institute was established to continue Fred’s legacy through education and advocacy. The Institute develops teaching kits and curriculum materials that help students understand the importance of standing up for justice.
These materials focus on the Japanese American incarceration during World War II and connect historical civil liberties violations to contemporary issues. They’ve reached thousands of classrooms across the United States.
The Institute serves as a national education advocacy organization committed to advancing racial equity and social justice. Their work emphasizes how one person’s courage can lead to meaningful change in society.
Teachers receive training through the Institute to effectively discuss complex topics like civil rights violations and constitutional protections with students of all ages.
Legacy in Education
Fred Korematsu’s story is now included in many educational programs that teach about civil rights and constitutional law. His case, Korematsu v. United States, is studied in law schools, high schools, and middle schools nationwide.
Several states, including California, Virginia, and New York, recognize January 30 as Fred Korematsu Day—the first day in U.S. history named after an Asian American. Schools use this day for special lessons about civil liberties.
The University of Michigan Law School and other institutions frequently feature Korematsu’s case in constitutional law courses as a key example of how civil liberties can be threatened during national crises.
Fred himself spent his later years visiting schools and universities, speaking to students about his experiences and the importance of protecting civil rights for all Americans.
Reflections on Korematsu’s Life and Influence
Fred Korematsu’s courageous stand against Japanese American internment created a lasting legacy that continues to inspire civil rights advocacy and legal discussions about constitutional protections during national crises.
Comparisons with Other Civil Rights Figures
Fred Korematsu stands alongside notable civil rights heroes like Rosa Parks and Cesar Chavez, though his story remained less known for decades. Like Parks, who refused to give up her bus seat, Korematsu made a personal decision to defy unjust government orders during WWII.
Both faced arrest for their principles, but Korematsu’s resistance came at a time of widespread fear and wartime hysteria. While Parks challenged segregation laws, Korematsu challenged executive orders that targeted an entire ethnic group.
Cesar Chavez organized for farm workers’ rights through collective action, while Korematsu’s fight was initially a solitary stand. All three figures demonstrated that individual resistance to injustice can spark broader movements.
Each faced significant personal consequences – Korematsu carried a felony conviction for 40 years before it was overturned in 1983.
Significance in American History
Korematsu’s legacy extends beyond his legal case to represent a critical examination of civil liberties during national emergencies. His daughter continues his work, continuing his mission to educate the public about this dark chapter in American history.
The Korematsu v. United States case remains a powerful warning about the dangers of governmental overreach. Legal scholars still study this case as both a cautionary precedent and an example of how courts can fail to protect constitutional rights when national security fears dominate.
At just 23 years old, Korematsu faced an agonizing decision that would define his life and impact American jurisprudence for generations. His story illustrates how constitutional principles can be tested during wartime.
The Fred T. Korematsu Institute now works to educate students about his story and promote racial equality. As a civil rights leader and pioneer, his example shows how persistence in fighting injustice can eventually lead to recognition and systemic change.
